Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara Empire, alternatively recognized as the Karnata Kingdom, took root in the scenic Deccan Plateau of South India in 1336. Its inception was attributed to the visionary efforts of brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, both belonging to the Sangama dynasty and hailing from a pastoralist cowherd community with ancestral ties to the Yadava lineage. The empire’s ascent to prominence in the late 13th century was propelled by the collective endeavors of southern forces striving to resist Islamic invasions.

Background

The founders declared independence and established the vibrant city of “Vijayanagar” on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River.
Early Vijayanagar rulers followed Saivism, with Virupaksha as their family deity. Over time, they embraced Vaishnavism while still continuing to worship Shiva.
Constant tensions between the Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahamani kingdom over the fertile Raichur doab, Tungabhadra doab, and Marathwada regions.
The Sultans of Madurai emerged as significant rivals in the south.
Under Rama Raya’s reign, the Vijayanagar Empire faced a significant setback.
The combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda, and Bidar defeated them at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565, leading to the end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Sri Ranga III, the final ruler of Vijayanagar, marked the conclusion of the empire’s historical legacy.

Sangama Dynasty

In the 14th century, the Sangama dynasty, founders of the Vijayanagara Empire, emerged with Harihara I (Vira Harihara or Hakka Raya) and Bukka Raya I, brothers and sons of Bhavana Sangama from a cowherd pastoralist lineage claiming Yadava descent.
Originating from humble beginnings, Bhavana Sangama, their father, was a chief of a cowherd community, laying the foundation for the Sangama dynasty.
The Sangama dynasty marked the initiation of Vijayanagara Empire’s rule, with Harihara I and Bukka Raya I at its helm.
During Harihara and Bukka I’s reigns, the Vijayanagara kingdom strategically expanded, assimilating numerous principalities and territories, notably incorporating a significant portion of the Hoysala domain.
A comprehensive account of the dynasty’s rise to power is vividly documented in the Nuniz chronicle, providing insights into the early stages of Vijayanagara’s ascendancy.

Rulers of the Sangama Dynasty

Harihara and Bukka (1336 – 1377 CE)

Harihara

Harihara I, also known as ‘Hakka’ or ‘Vira Harihara,’ played a pivotal role in establishing the Vijayanagara Empire. As the eldest son of Bhavana Sangama and a descendant of the Kuruba clan, he laid the foundation for the Sangama Dynasty.
After ascending to power, Harihara I demonstrated his strategic acumen by constructing a fort in Barkuru on the western coast of present-day Karnataka. This move solidified his control over the region.
Prior to assuming leadership, Harihara I ruled the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire. His ascendancy to the throne in 1343, following the demise of Hoysala Veera Ballala III, marked the expansion of his influence.
Harihara I was known by several titles, including ‘Karnataka Vidya Vilas,’ ‘Arirayavibhada’ (fire to enemy kings), and ‘Bhashegetappuvarayaraganda’ (punisher of feudal lords who failed to keep promises). These titles were inscribed during his reign, reflecting his reputation.

Bukka

Bukka Raya I, a prominent ruler of the Sangama Dynasty who governed the Vijayanagara Empire, played a crucial role in patronizing the Telugu poet Nachana Soma.
The early lives of Bukka and Raya are veiled in mystery, giving rise to numerous legends.
Legend has it that Hakka and Bukka, believed to be born in the Kuruba clan, served as commanders in the royal army of the King of Warangal.
However, their lives took a turn when Muhammad Bin Tughlaq defeated the ruler of Warangal.
Subsequently, Hakka and Bukka were captured, imprisoned, and transported to Delhi, where they were coerced into converting to Islam.

Harihara II (1377 – 1406 CE)

Harihara II was the Vijayanagar Empire’s ruler during the Sangama Dynasty.
From 1377 to 1404 CE, he was in power. This ruler supported the famous Kannada poet Madhura.
During the reign of this emperor, who was bestowed with the titles ‘Vedamarga Pravartak’ and ‘Vaidikamarga Sthapanachary,’ and significant work on the Vedas was completed.
Harihara II primarily ruled the Vijayanagara region, known as Hampi.
The ruins of Harihara II’s palace can be found among the ruins of Hampi.

Deva Raya I (1406 – 1422 CE)

Deva Raya I, a prominent ruler of the Sangama Dynasty in the Vijayanagara Empire, seized the throne in 1406 after a succession struggle following the death of Harihara II.
Renowned for his adept rule, Deva Raya I showcased remarkable military skills and actively supported extensive irrigation projects within his kingdom, contributing to its overall development.
Engaging in conflicts with the Bahamani Sultan, Deva Raya I faced some challenges and setbacks during his reign as he sought to expand and secure his territories.
Despite his capabilities, Deva Raya I faced an unfortunate end, passing away in 1422.
His death marked the conclusion of a significant era in the Vijayanagara Empire.
Following Deva Raya I’s demise, his son Vira-Vijaya, also referred to as “Visaya” by Nuniz, ascended to the throne.
Vira-Vijaya’s reign persisted for six years, as documented by Nuniz.

Deva Raya II (1425 – 1446 CE)

Deva Raya II ruled the Vijayanagara Empire from 1425 to 1446 CE.
He was the most powerful ruler of the Sangama dynasty, and he was a skilled administrator, warrior, and scholar.
He wrote well-known Kannada works (Sobagina Sone and Amaruka) as well as Sanskrit works (Mahanataka Sudhanidhi).
Despite the fact that Deva Raya II’s wars with the Bahmanis ended in defeat and loss, his reign was marked by administrative reorganisation.
Muslims were admitted into the army by him to compete with the Bahamanis.
In order to control and regulate trade, he appointed his right-hand man, Lakkanna or Laksmana, to the lordship of the southern sea, which is in charge of overseas commerce.
Nicolo Conti and Abdur Razzaq, a Persia envoy, visited Vijayanagar in 1420 and 1443, respectively, and left glowing descriptions of the city and the Vijaynagar Empire.

Tuluva Dynasty

The Tuluva Dynasty, the third ruling family of the Vijayanagar Empire, hailed from coastal Karnataka, India.
Playing a crucial role in the decision-making processes of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Tuluva Dynasty marked a pivotal era in Southern India.
The Vijayanagara Empire experienced its zenith of grandeur during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya, widely acclaimed as its most illustrious monarch.
Spanning from 1491 to 1570, the Tuluva Dynasty witnessed five emperors who collectively governed extensive territories in South India, with Vijayanagar serving as their capital.
Originating from the Tulu-speaking region in the west, the Tuluva Dynasty’s influence expanded, leaving an indelible mark on the cultural and historical landscape of the region.
A Sanskrit epigraph on the eastern wall of Tirumala temple provides insights into the ancestry of Krishnadevaraya, shedding light on the dynasty’s roots and heritage.

Rulers of Tuluva Dynasty

Vira Narasimha Raya (1505 – 1509 CE):

Vira Narasimha Raya, of the Saluva dynasty, founded the Tuluva dynasty and ruled from 1505 to 1509.
Recognized as a religious king, he was known for making generous donations at sacred sites.
Legend suggests that on his deathbed in 1509, Vira Narasimha Raya asked his minister Saluva Thimma to blind his younger brother Krishna Deva Raya.
Contrary to the legend, historical evidence indicates a smooth transition of power, and there’s no proof of animosity between the half-brothers.

Krishna Deva Raya (1509 – 1529 CE):

Krishna Deva Raya, the most powerful emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire, ruled from 1509 to 1529.
Revered by the people of Kannada and Telugu descent, he held titles like Andhra Bhoja and Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana.
Timmarusu, a capable Prime Minister, played a significant role in his administration, and Krishnadevaraya considered him a father figure.

Achyuta Deva Raya (1529 – 1542 CE):

Achyuta Deva Raya succeeded Krishna Deva Raya in 1529, his younger brother.
Despite challenges during his reign, including external threats and internal strife, Achyuta Deva Raya fought to sustain the empire’s prosperity.
Portuguese chronicler Nuniz portrayed him negatively, but historical evidence highlights his efforts to uphold the kingdom.

Sada Siva Raya (1542 – 1570 CE):

Sadasiva Raya ruled from 1542 to 1570 and succeeded his uncle Achyuta Deva Raya.
Aliya Rama Raya facilitated his coronation, and Sadasiva overcame challenges from the regent Salakam Timmu Raju.Minister Rama Raya, initially a regent, became the de facto ruler of the kingdom during Sadasiva’s reign.
The transition from Krishna Deva Raya marked a challenging period for the Vijayanagara Empire.
Feudators and external enemies posed threats, leading to a complex political landscape.
Each ruler faced unique challenges, and their efforts to sustain the empire’s prosperity varied, as seen in the contrasting perspectives presented by historical sources.

Army and Military Organization

The need for a robust military presence was imperative for continuous warfare, with a focus on well-bred horses and essential artillery.
Vijayanagar rulers sourced top-notch horses from Arabia and Gulf countries via the Malabar port, aiming to bolster their military strength.
The Malabar port served as a crucial hub for luxury commodity trade, prompting continuous efforts by Vijayanagar rulers to control it.
Vijayanagar, akin to the Bahamanis, embraced firearm technology. Turkish and Portuguese experts were hired to train soldiers, reflecting a commitment to staying abreast of the latest warfare weaponry.
Deva Raya II demonstrated inclusivity by enlisting Muslims in his forces, providing them jagirs, and constructing a mosque in the city to foster diversity.
In response to the threat posed by firearms, fortifications were enhanced with thicker walls, fortified doors, and strategically designed parapets to house cannons.
Large holes in fort walls were crafted to support guns, showcasing innovative strategies to counter the evolving nature of warfare.
The military arsenal encompassed various firearms, ranging from smaller rifles and pistols to larger cannons, each serving distinct purposes on the battlefield.
Recognizing the impracticality of transporting heavy cannons on traditional means like bullock carts or elephants, alternative strategies were devised to address logistical challenges.

Administration

In executive, judicial, and legislative matters, the king had absolute authority. The throne was hereditary.
Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas, and finally Gramas were the administrative divisions.
Mandaleshwar or Nayaka was the governor of Mandalam.
He had considerable power. He could mint small denomination coins and impose new taxes or repeal old ones.
Land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs at ports, and taxes on various professions were all sources of income.
The army was made up of cavalry, infantry, artillery, and elephants.
Under the Nayankar System, the army’s highest-ranking officers were known as Nayaks/Poligars.
They were given land in exchange for their services, which they named Amaram.
Manyams were tax-free lands.
A body of 12 functionaries known as Ayangars ran village affairs.

The rulers of Vijayanagar were devoted to Vishnu, yet they embraced religious tolerance, fostering an inclusive society for people of all faiths.
Women held prominent roles in politics, society, and literature, highlighting their influential contributions to the cultural fabric of Vijayanagar.
Allasani Peddanna’s “Manucharitam” identified four main castes in Vijayanagar society:
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, reflecting the diverse social structure.
The elite adorned themselves in silk and cotton attire while enjoying luxurious homes and a plethora of household servants, showcasing the affluence of the society.
Nicolo Conti mentioned the existence of slavery in Vijayanagar, shedding light on the social dynamics of the time.
The Sangama rulers predominantly followed Saivism, with Virupaksha as their family deity, yet they maintained religious tolerance, respecting other faiths.
Muslims played key roles in the administration, enjoyed the freedom to build mosques, and practiced their faith, illustrating the inclusive nature of Vijayanagar’s governance.
Despite limited progress in overall status, some women were learned and made significant contributions.
Gangadevi, Kumarakampana’s wife, authored the renowned work Maduravijayam, while Hannamma and Thirumalamma were celebrated poets.
Nuniz noted a substantial number of women engaging in diverse roles such as dancers, domestic servants, and palanquin bearers in royal palaces, highlighting the multifaceted roles women played in Vijayanagar society.

Economy

The Vijayanagar Empire was one of the richest states in the world at the time.
Several foreign visitors to the empire in the 15th and 16th centuries wrote glowing accounts of its splendour and wealth.
Agriculture was in a prosperous state.
The rulers’ policy was to encourage agriculture in various parts of the empire and to increase agricultural production through a wise irrigation policy.
Nuniz, the Portuguese traveller, mentions dam construction and canal excavation.
Numerous industries supplemented agricultural wealth, the most important of which were textiles, mining, and metallurgy.
Perfumery was another important industry. Guilds governed industries and crafts.
It was common practise for people of the same trade to live in the same neighbourhood.
The Persian diplomat and traveller Abdur Razzak observes, “The tradesmen of each separate guild or craft have their shops close to one another.”
Trade there was thriving inland, coastal, and international trade, which was a major source of general prosperity.
According to Abdur Razzak, the kingdom had 300 seaports.
Malabar, with its important port of Cannanore, was the most important commercial area on the West coast.
It maintained commercial ties with the Indian Ocean islands, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, and China to the east, and Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia, and Portugal to the west.
Cloth, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar, and other commodities were among the most important exports.
Horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silks and velvets were among the most important imports.
Ships were used for both coastal and international trade.
The art of shipbuilding was known in Vijayanagar, but we don’t know if ocean-going ships were built.
Another Portuguese traveller, Barbosa, claims that South India’s ships were built in the Maldives.

Decline of Vijayanagara Empire

The sultans of Golconda and Ahmadnagar, who had suffered greatly at the hands of Rama Raya, were most likely the driving force behind the formation of an alliance that effectively ended Vijayanagar’s power.
By 1564, at least four of the five sultans (Berar is debatable) had begun their march on Vijayanagar, which resulted in the disastrous defeat of Vijayanagar forces in the Battle of Talikota and the subsequent sack and destruction of much of the city.
Rama Raya was captured and killed, but his brother Tirumala escaped with the king and much of the royal treasure to the south.

Conclusion

Over time, Vijayanagara rose to prominence as the preeminent empire in southern India. It played a pivotal role in revitalizing Hindu life and governance after the disruptions and disarray of the 12th and 13th centuries, serving as a formidable bulwark against invasions from the Muslim sultanates in the north.

Read Also: The decline of the Mughal Empire