Cultural Stagnation: Stagnation and a reliance on past traditions characterized 18th-century social life and culture in India, lacking significant innovation.
Diverse Social Divisions: Diverse social divisions prevailed, characterized by differences in religion, region, language, and caste across the country. Hindus and Muslims did not form homogenous societies, and diversity was a defining feature.
Disparities in Class Culture: The social life and culture of the upper classes, a small minority, significantly differed from that of the lower classes. Economic and social disparities contributed to distinct cultural expressions among various segments of the population.
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Hindu
Central Social Feature: Caste stood as the central feature in Hindu social life, with Hindus categorized into various castes (Jatis) in addition to the four varnas.
Rigid Social Hierarchy: The caste system rigidly assigned individuals to specific social positions, determining their place in the social hierarchy. Brahmins and higher castes enjoyed exclusive social prestige and privileges.
Strict Caste Rules: Societal norms forbade inter-caste marriages, and prevalent restrictions discouraged inter-dining. The higher castes often avoided consuming food touched by lower-caste individuals.
Profession and Social Status: Caste often dictated one’s choice of profession, though exceptions existed. Councils, panchayats, and caste chiefs enforced caste regulations through fines, penances, and expulsion.
Divisive Force: Caste served as a major divisive force and a source of disintegration in 18th-century India, perpetuating social inequalities and restrictions.
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Muslim
Caste, Race, and Sect Divisions: Despite Islam’s emphasis on social equality, considerations of caste, race, group, and status divided Muslims in 18th-century India. Religious differences between Shia and Sunni sects often led to conflicts among Muslim nobles.
Ethnic and Regional Differences: Irani, Afghan, Turani, and Hindustani Muslim nobles and officials often maintained distinct identities, reflecting ethnic and regional variations.
Caste Influence in Conversion: Many Hindus who converted to Islam carried their caste distinctions into the new religion, albeit less rigidly. Caste divisions persisted among converted Muslims, resembling the distinctions observed before conversion.
Social Hierarchies within Islam: The sharif Muslims, comprising nobles, scholars, priests, and army officers, looked down upon ajlaf Muslims, the lower class. This hierarchical attitude mirrored the social stratification seen among higher and lower castes in Hindu society.
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