Religion and Society

Religion and Society is a deeply ingrained social phenomenon across societies, integral to everyday life. While it often fosters cohesion, it has also been wielded to incite hatred and justify atrocities. It persists as a societal institution, offering individuals meaning and support, particularly in times of crisis. Sociologists analyze its impact on social organization, from ancient times to the present, noting a perceived decline in its role in modern societies. However, religious identities, conflicts, and movements continue to expand. In the context of India, understanding the emergence and current nature of diverse religions is crucial.

Major religions in India

India’s religious landscape is rich and varied, encompassing Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, and other faiths and affiliations, as documented by the Census of India. According to the 2011 Census data:

Hinduism: 79.8%
Islam: 14.23%
Christianity: 2.30%
Sikhism: 1.72%
Buddhism: 0.70%
Other religions and ideologies: 0.66%
Unspecified religions: 0.24%

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON RELIGION AND SOCIETY IN INDIA

Before delving into the diversity, emergence, and fundamental aspects of India’s religions, it’s crucial for sociology students to comprehend the origins of studies on religion and society in India. The Orientalist and Indological approaches have significantly shaped the sociological understanding of religion. These approaches, as covered in Unit 1 of this course, are pivotal to grasp for a comprehensive understanding of the subject.

Edward Said’s concept of Orientalism highlights how the West used a dichotomy of East and West, portraying the East as backward and in need of ‘modernization,’ justifying colonial dominance. British colonial studies, aligning with this, constructed an image of India as subordinate, using Indology to study Indian culture, heavily reliant on Brahmin perspectives. This resulted in a skewed understanding of Indian religion, propagating a homogenized ‘Hinduism’ and perpetuating divisions like Hindu-Muslim conflicts. This colonial construction of Indian history based on rulers’ religions led to misunderstandings that persist today.

Religion: A Shared Understanding

Religion varies in how it’s perceived—personal to some, a tool for governance for others. It encompasses rituals, festivals, art, and more, shaped by geography and culture, leading to diverse interpretations. Despite these differences, it forms a global network present in all communities, contributing significantly to social order and control.

Exploring Religion Sociologically

Religion’s intricate nature, seen as both powerful and elusive, remains a focal point in sociology. Social scientists emphasize exploring its impact on various societal facets like education and kinship. Sociological analysis often delves into the origins within ancient communities for comparative study. While numerous theories exist, the sociological perspective on religion is notably shaped by Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim’s ideas.

Religion and Durkheim

Émile Durkheim, a French sociologist, founded the Functionalist school of thought, emphasizing collective functioning and social solidarity. He viewed religion beyond beliefs, encompassing rituals and ceremonies that bind religious communities, fostering a sense of unity and solidarity among people as a vital role of religion as a social institution.

Weber’s Perspective on Religion

Max Weber, a German sociologist, explored the impact of religion on a community’s economy and the roots of rationalization. He noted that in Protestant societies, striving for material prosperity was seen as aligned with God’s will, unlike in Eastern cultures where spiritual living held greater value over financial gain. Weber coined the term “irrational religious systems” for Eastern religions as they were seen as hindrances to rationality, juxtaposed against the perceived rationality of Protestant ethics and capitalism.

Marx’s View on Religion

Karl Marx, a German philosopher and communist, focused on society’s economic aspects and resulting conflicts. He argued that religion offers hope of eternal salvation, leading people to accept their circumstances. Marx believed religion obscured societal inequalities, worsening the suffering of the impoverished and marginalized.

Sociologically, there’s debate over whether Hinduism qualifies as a religion. Max Weber suggests ‘Hinduism’ is a term coined by the West and wasn’t originally a religion but a complex religious identity under British colonial census. Historically, Hinduism is seen as diverse, comprising various sects and considered more a way of life than a singular religion. Scholars note its absence of a single founder, texts, or uniform practices, with innumerable gods and contradictory beliefs among sects like Vaishnavites and Shaivites. Indian sociologists argue Hinduism is more a cultural tradition, stimulating sociological analysis.

They challenge the idea of a unified Hindu social order, emphasizing the practical influence over the prescribed texts. Srinivas highlights the entanglement of Hinduism with the social order, questioning the divine origin of the four varnas and suggesting innumerable jatis (sub-castes) exist. Caste, integral to Hinduism, defines ritual roles and duties, and according to Weber, is its fundamental institution. Theological concepts like dharma, karma, moksha, purity, and pollution provide ideological justification for the caste system within Hinduism.

Islam

Islam emerged in 6th-century Arabia as a monotheistic faith with the Quran as its sole Holy book. Its core teachings revolve around the ‘five pillars,’ emphasizing faith, daily prayers, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage to Mecca. These practices aim to cultivate self-discipline and assure a place in Heaven through submission to God.

Regarding its founder, Islam has two main sects, Sunni and Shia, differing on succession beliefs. In India, Islam’s character diverges due to the influence of the caste system from Hinduism, leading to a different system of stratification. While caste acceptance is weak among Muslims and lacks religious sanction, some scholars, like Imtiaz Ahmad, note the presence of caste among Muslims, albeit without the same purity-pollution-based categories.

Despite these nuances, Islam significantly contributes to India’s diverse cultural heritage, shaping its composite cultural identity.

Sikhism

Sikhism, one of the newest among major religions, arose about 500 years ago as a response to feudal norms in India. Founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century, Sikhism challenged Vedantic philosophy, drawing inspiration from saints opposing the caste system. Nanak, influenced by Kabir’s rejection of caste divisions, emphasized devotion to a single God over rituals. Sikhism, a synthesis of beliefs, combines monotheism with a practical approach, advocating honest living and sharing labor’s fruits. Nanak established Sangat and Pangat, promoting equality by having people, regardless of caste or religion, dine together in community kitchens.

Guru Nanak, accompanied by the Muslim musician Mardana, spread Sikhism’s message of love and truth. The Adi Granth, the Sikh holy book, incorporates poems by lower-caste Hindu and Muslim saints like Kabir, Namdev, and Ravidas, reflecting Sikhism’s inclusive nature.

The line of spiritual leadership in Sikhism persisted through nine successive Gurus. Among them, Guru Angad Dev notably developed the Gurmukhi script utilized for the Adi Granth. This distinctive script remains the language in which the holy book was written.

Christianity

The Christian community in India isn’t a singular entity but comprises various groups organized based on regions, languages, and sects. Their diverse backgrounds lead to different socio-cultural practices and economic statuses. With no uniform Christian way of life, India houses numerous churches, denominations, and sects.

In 1981, India had 18 million Christians, making up 2.43% of the population. The Christian population increased in line with the national growth rate. However, their distribution was uneven across regions. States like Meghalaya and Nagaland had high concentrations of Christians, while states like Jammu and Kashmir had very low percentages. By 1991, Nagaland and Meghalaya showed the highest concentrations of Christian populations.

Despite regional differences, certain beliefs unite Indian Christians. They share the belief in Jesus Christ as their savior, born to the virgin Mary as God’s redemption for humanity’s sins. This concept is accepted across Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox Christians in India. The story of Jesus’ humble birth is central to Christian teachings, emphasizing themes of poverty, meekness, and humility.

Buddhism

Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha in 6th century BC India, emerged during a time when the caste system had firmly entrenched itself in society. Ancient India saw a diverse political landscape, with monarchical kingdoms and gana-sanghas (republican territories) coexisting and often in conflict over expansion.

Distinct from the prevailing Brahmanism, Buddhism offered a contrasting philosophical outlook, challenging Vedic authority and emphasizing material aspects over abstract spirituality. It presented a non-theistic view of the universe’s creation and decline, differing from Vedic concepts. Buddha’s theory of cause and effect differed from the Vedic theory of Karma, focusing on natural cosmic processes rather than metaphysical explanations.

Buddhism’s governance ideology was independent of deities, considering civil strife as arising from social changes rather than divine intervention. It emphasized the need for governance through logical means and law establishment, contrasting with Vedic explanations invoking gods in governance origins.

Alongside Buddhism, other religions like Jainism, Zoroastrianism, and various tribal faiths also hold significance in comprehending Indian society. These diverse religious perspectives contribute to a comprehensive understanding of Indian societal dynamics.

Conclusion

Religion serves as a fundamental framework of moral principles and regulations found in diverse forms across all societies. Examining its societal role offers various perspectives, each holding significant assertions. Durkheim viewed religion as a unifying force dictating individual moral conduct. Weber emphasized its profound impact on communities, capable of sparking societal changes. Conversely, Marx famously referred to religion as the “opium of the masses,” functioning as a tool that amplifies existing societal inequalities.

Nevertheless, these scholars shared the belief that in modern, capitalist societies, religion would evolve from its traditional form, becoming less rigid and adapting to contemporary contexts.