Indian literature refers to the literature produced on the Indian subcontinent until 1947 and in the Republic of India thereafter. The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India has 22 officially recognised languages. Sahitya Akademi, India’s highest literary body, also has 24 recognized literary languages.

Forms of Ancient Indian Literature

The oldest known piece of Indian literature is known as the Rig Veda, which consists of 1028 hymns written in Vedic Sanskrit. Although the majority of the ancient Indian literary works that have survived are religious texts, it is erroneous to characterise ancient Indian literature exclusively in terms of religion.

Indian literature spans a variety of literary forms, including epics, songs, dramatic and didactic poetry, narrative and scientific writing, as well as oral poetry and music. Two ancient Indian epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Prior to the Gupta dynasty, a lot of secular literary works were produced. During this time, poetry and drama were in their prime.

The earliest of these, with literature from the first decades of the Christian era, is Tamil. Three Sangams (meetings of poets and writers) held at separate eras resulted in this development. Sangam literature frequently explores the topics of politics, love, and war.

Vedic Literature

Vedic literature constitutes a vast body of ancient religious and philosophical texts that originated in ancient India during the Vedic period (circa 1500–500 BCE). The term “Vedic” is derived from the Sanskrit word “Veda,” meaning knowledge or wisdom. The Vedas, the core texts of this literature, are considered the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda.

1. Rigveda: Composed in hymns, the Rigveda is the oldest Veda and focuses on praises and invocations to various deities. It contains hymns dedicated to natural forces, such as fire and wind.
2. Samaveda: This Veda is primarily a collection of chants and melodies used during religious rituals. It is closely associated with the Rigveda and provides a musical rendition of its hymns.
3. Yajurveda: The Yajurveda consists of prose mantras and verses that guide priests in performing rituals and ceremonies, especially those involving sacrifices (yajnas).
4. Atharvaveda: This Veda includes hymns and spells meant for practical and everyday use. It covers a range of topics, including healing, magic, and incantations.

Apart from the Vedas, other important Vedic texts include:

• Brahmanas: Prose texts that explain the rituals and ceremonies described in the Vedas.
• Aranyakas: Texts that serve as a bridge between the ritualistic Brahmanas and the philosophical Upanishads. They are associated with forest-dwelling hermits.
• Upanishads: Philosophical texts that explore the nature of reality, the self (atman), and the ultimate reality (Brahman). They mark the culmination of Vedic thought.

Vedic literature laid the foundation for Hindu religious and philosophical traditions, influencing subsequent texts and shaping the spiritual and cultural landscape of ancient India.

Ramayana and Mahabharata

Ramayana:
Attributing authorship to the sage Valmiki, the Ramayana stands as an ancient Indian epic. It narrates the life of Prince Rama, his wife Sita, and his loyal companion Hanuman. The story revolves around the abduction of Sita by the demon king Ravana and Rama’s quest to rescue her. Along the way, the epic delves into themes of duty, morality, and the cosmic battle between good and evil. The Ramayana consists of seven books and is a significant cultural and religious text in Hinduism.

Mahabharata:
The Mahabharata, attributed to the sage Vyasa, is one of the longest epic poems in the world. It centers around the conflict between two branches of the Kuru dynasty—the Pandavas and the Kauravas. The great Kurukshetra War is the epic’s climax, where the Pandavas, with Lord Krishna as their charioteer, face their cousins in a colossal battle. The Mahabharata not only includes the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred dialogue between Krishna and the warrior Arjuna, but also addresses complex philosophical and ethical questions. It is a cornerstone of Hindu literature and encompasses diverse genres, including poetry, mythology, and moral teachings.

Puranas

The Puranas, a genre of ancient Indian literature, are a collection of mythological narratives, cosmological insights, and religious teachings. These texts, including the Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, and Bhagavata Purana, preserve Hindu mythology and provide details about the creation of the universe, genealogies of deities, and moral principles. Offering a rich tapestry of stories, the Puranas also delve into temple traditions, divine epics, and the cyclical nature of time. Serving as a cultural and religious repository, the Puranas play a crucial role in shaping Hindu beliefs, rituals, and philosophical understanding.

Earlier Buddhist writings

Early Buddhist writings, known as the Pali Canon or Tipitaka, constitute the foundational scriptures of Buddhism. The Suttas contain the Buddha’s teachings on ethics, meditation, and wisdom, while the Vinaya provides guidelines for the monastic community. The Abhidhamma explores the psychological and metaphysical aspects of Buddhist philosophy. These writings form the basis for various Buddhist traditions, offering insights into the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and the nature of existence.

Importance of Ancient literary works

• Diverse Literary Landscape: Beyond Vedas and epics, ancient Indian literature encompasses Dharmashastras, defining ethical obligations and character development, while also delving into mathematics and science.
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Kautilya’s Sanskrit work, Arthashastra, provides insights into economic and governmental policies, reflecting a sophisticated understanding of governance in ancient India.
• Buddhist Literature in Pali: The popularity of Buddhist literature in Pali grows, featuring poetry, philosophy, and grammar, contributing to the rich tapestry of ancient Indian literary tradition.
• Complex Beauty: Ancient Indian literature, though challenging, is both beautiful and profound, offering a nuanced exploration of character formation and the pursuit of happiness through the Vedas, Shastras, and Upanishads.
• Sanskrit Poetry Themes: Sanskrit poets of old explored themes of love, nature, panegyric, moralizing, and narrative, expressing a passionate view of physical love and perceiving nature in connection to humanity rather than for its own sake.
• Pinnacle in Sanskrit Kavya: The Sanskrit Kavya, exemplified in Kalidasa’s works, attains unparalleled quality and perfection, showcasing the zenith of literary achievement in ancient India.

Read also: The Age of the Rig Veda