Social Change

Social change refers to the process of alteration in social patterns, behaviors and cultures. Such processes cause changes in society. Social change can manifest in various ways. It may occur gradually, evolving over time, or it can transpire abruptly, spurred by a single catalytic event. This transformation can stem from a multitude of factors, ranging from natural occurrences to human-made advancements, and it can result from either deliberate or unintended actions.

Academics contend that contemporary social transformations are rooted in millennia-old processes. Historians have thus far identified four significant societal transitions in human history.

The first one was the change from hunting and gathering communities to pastoral societies.
The second social change brought advanced agricultural societies. It was the result of technological developments, such as the invention of the plow.
The third major social change came after the invention of the steam engine that set the Industrial Revolution in motion.
Finally, we are experiencing the fourth social change today, the technological revolution started by the invention of the microchip.

Scholars predict that the next social revolution, which is not so far away, will be based on biotechnology.

Social movements are often drivers of social change.

When a large group of people in a society become outraged by their socio-economic or cultural situation, they might organize and rise to demand a change to the status quo. This is what we call a social movement.

In the past, social movements were restricted to local or national levels. Nowadays, thanks to globalization, many social movements find international following as people realize that social issues are very similar all over the world.

Sociologists have identified four major causes of social change, from technology to the environment. Let us look at them in detail.

In 2005, Thomas Friedman posited that the primary catalyst for social change is globalization, a phenomenon propelled by advancements in technology. He articulated his theory in his book “The World Is Flat,” wherein he delineated three distinct phases of globalization.

Initially, globalization was propelled by the growth of military power, including the utilization of horsepower and wind power. The nations that harnessed these forces most effectively experienced the most significant expansion and wielded global political influence from the 15th century until around 1800.

In the second phase, spanning from the Industrial Revolution until the 2000s, globalization was predominantly centered around economic factors. Steam power and rail systems emerged as the primary drivers of social change during this era.

More recently, globalization has been propelled by technological advancements, particularly the transformative impacts of the Internet and its widespread utilization. These technological shifts have reverberated across various facets of life, influencing the other three agents of social change: social institutions, population dynamics, and the environment, as explored below.

The social transformations ushered in by technology have yielded both advantageous and adverse effects on society. While some emphasize the benefits of technological progress, others focus on its drawbacks. Scholars have raised concerns about the digital divide, the erosion of privacy, and the prevalence of cyberbullying as three significant drawbacks of digitalization.

Alterations within social institutions have a cascading impact on other societal structures. Changes in one social institution typically trigger reverberations throughout the interconnected web of social organizations.

Exam: After the Industrial Revolution, there was no need for manual labor on farms and no more need for large families. At the same time people moved to cities where living space was limited. Due to these changes, the average family size became much smaller than it was pre-industrialization.

Similarly, when work moved from the farms to the factories, children had to be educated differently both in terms of study content and time schedule. They needed to gain practical knowledge about the operation of machinery instead of learning about crops and seasonal farming duties. Schools had to organize teaching in a way that allowed the children to work in factories besides the classes. As a result, industrialization brought about changes in the institution of education.

Populations undergo constant fluctuations, both within individual countries and on a global scale. These changes can arise from external factors such as natural disasters or epidemics, as well as shifts within social institutions, as previously mentioned. When population trends undergo transformations, their repercussions can be profound for society at large.

In the United States, there is a noticeable rise in the elderly population alongside a decline in birthrates. Consequently, there is a growing demand for elderly care and housing facilities, necessitating adaptations within certain social institutions. Additionally, the implications extend to factors like reduced tax revenue and increased demand for retirement plans, potentially affecting the country’s overall stability.

On a global scale, countries with the highest fertility rates often face challenges in accommodating their expanding populations, underscoring the significance of comprehensive family planning, inclusive of resources and education. In light of the recent milestone of the global population reaching 8 billion in 2022, the strain on natural resources is escalating, particularly in economically disadvantaged regions.

The frequency of natural disasters impacting human populations is on the rise, and as our interaction with the natural world intensifies, these occurrences are poised to become even more prevalent. As mentioned earlier, population growth amplifies the strain on our planet’s resources, which in turn is likely to exacerbate ecological challenges.

Numerous activists and movements have sounded the alarm, emphasizing that the current trajectory is unsustainable. Notably, 350.org contends that we stand on the precipice of a sixth major extinction event. Over recent decades, numerous animal species have already gone extinct, and humanity may be next in line unless, as advocated by 350.org, we take action to reduce atmospheric CO2 levels below 350 parts per million and make substantial changes to our behavior.

In a departure from the preceding five mass extinctions, which were primarily attributed to natural causes, the Center for Biological Diversity asserts that if a sixth mass extinction occurs, it will be predominantly attributable to human activities.

Modernization is a key effect of social change that we can see in society.

Modernization refers to the process through which a society becomes developed in technological, economic, social and cultural regards.

A society is often deemed “modern” when it possesses advanced technology, particularly in the realms of industry and infrastructure. Nevertheless, it’s crucial to acknowledge that this assessment is inherently ethnocentric. We should question the assumption that nations lacking developed industries inherently aspire to attain them and critically examine whether our conventional definition of modernity is entirely advantageous.

As we briefly explored, technological advancement bears a dual nature. While devices like dishwashers and vacuum cleaners save us time and global connectivity fosters communication across vast distances, these conveniences also come at a cost. They may translate into increased work hours and the relentless expectation of online availability. Access to vast amounts of information at our fingertips is undeniably valuable, but it also exposes us to misinformation and fake news, blurring the lines between truth and falsehood.

It’s imperative for sociologists, like individuals from all walks of life, to remain mindful that more traditional cultures may not view the Western world as an exemplary model, nor do they necessarily require capitalist nations to impose their version of “modernity” upon them. This isn’t to romanticize rural communities facing serious issues such as disease and poverty. Instead, it underscores the need for both preservation and development, a nuanced issue that warrants careful consideration and thoughtful handling.

Sociologists and historians have always tried to find explanations for social change. We are now going to consider four important theories about the causes and results of social change in society.

These theories drew inspiration from Charles Darwin’s theory of biological evolution, which posited that species underwent continuous development from lower to higher stages of development.

In the 20th century, certain social scientists extended Darwin’s framework to societies, contending that society itself was perpetually evolving. This perspective gave rise to two distinct branches of this theory.

The unilinear theory posits that all societies follow a uniform trajectory, evolving from rudimentary organizational structures to more intricate systems.

Lewis Morgan (1877) delineated this developmental path into three stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization. Notably, Morgan pointed to England as the pinnacle of civilization, a viewpoint influenced by his English background. According to his perspective, all societies were destined to traverse this same trajectory and eventually reach a level akin to that of England.

Auguste Comte, a foundational figure in sociology, and the functionalist Émile Durkheim also subscribed to the notion of this consistent and inescapable progression in human society.

In contrast, the multilinear theory contends that societies can reach the highest stage of development, but they may follow diverse paths rather than a singular trajectory. Nevertheless, both multilinear and unilinear theorists converge in their belief that the ultimate goal is to attain a state of civilization characterized by industrial advancement.

Both of these theories, unilinear and multilinear, share a common premise of valuing cultural progress. They tend to regard tribalism and, generally, non-Western cultures as less advanced, with an aspiration to embrace the Western way of life and achieve a state of civilization.

While this theory held sway for centuries, it gradually lost favor in recent decades. This shift in perspective was spurred by the growing recognition that Western society faced its own crises and did not inherently possess a superior claim to civilization. Ongoing and widespread issues such as poverty, racism, terrorism, warfare, sexual assaults, diseases, and crime undermined the notion that the West represented the pinnacle of human civilization. Consequently, the concept of cultural progress has lost some of the persuasive power it held during the Industrial Revolution.

The question arises: how can we reconcile the remarkable achievements of advanced civilizations like Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, and Ancient Rome with their eventual decline and fall into obscurity? Some theories, such as the natural cycles theory, propose that these civilizations may have, in essence, reached a point of stagnation or expiration in their development.

This is the perspective put forth by cyclical theorists when it comes to understanding the ebb and flow of civilizations. They liken civilizations to living organisms, asserting that they undergo a life cycle comprising birth, youth, maturity, decline, old age, and eventual demise (Hughes 1962).

Historian Arnold Toynbee (1946) contended that civilizations and empires, while grappling with internal revolts and conflicts, typically manage to maintain control through non-violent means. However, the fabric of society begins to fray when they can no longer sustain control without resorting to force—usually a sign that an empire has reached its zenith.

According to Toynbee, in such cases, the decline of civilization and culture has already set in, and though force can temporarily prop up a society, it is ultimately destined to collapse.

Oswald Spengler, in his work “The Decline of the West” (1926-28), asserted that the Western world had reached its zenith as a civilization and was already in the throes of decline. Many found support for this view, especially given the tumultuous events of the 20th century, even though humanity managed to surmount them.

Considering Toynbee’s perspective that the decline of civilizations can span decades, Spengler’s analysis gains credence, particularly in light of the ongoing crises alluded to in the theories of social change.

Karl Marx and his followers established the conflict theory of social change. He argued that social change is a recurring process in which the current system of power (thesis) is challenged by its opposition (antithesis) until a new system of power (synthesis) is developed. This new system functions for a while until the process starts all over again.

In something that Marx called this the dialectical process of history, the social and economic theorist also added that every ruling group creates their own opposition and thus plays a role in its own destruction.

Exam: The capitalist system functions because of the exploitation of the working class where owners profit from oppressing workers. Workers, however, are not satisfied with this position and will not stop until they establish a new status quo, one that they deem fairer for themselves. According to Marx, they want to establish a classless society. If they succeed that means the end of the ruling class.

The fourth major theory comes from social scientist, William Ogburn, and is based on technology. He claimed that technology changes society, and it does it in three ways: by invention, discovery and diffusion.

Inventions in Society

Ogburn posits that the emergence of material innovations, such as microchips and computers, plays a pivotal role in instigating social change. The introduction of automobiles, for instance, brought about a revolution in transportation, enabling longer commutes to work. Likewise, advancements in mass telecommunications have dramatically transformed our interactions across virtually every facet of life.

Conversely, the creation of novel concepts and theories, often referred to as social inventions, can also wield substantial influence on society. Examples of these social inventions encompass democracy, citizenship, socialism, capitalism, and even gender equality. These concepts generally exert a profound impact on people’s interactions, relationships, and daily experiences.

Discovery of Existing Reality

Ogburn’s second mechanism of change is referred to as discovery. Discovery entails a fresh perspective on a reality that already exists; when individuals make this groundbreaking revelation for the first time, it can carry significant consequences.

As an illustration, Christopher Columbus’ ‘discovery’ of America had far-reaching and history-altering ramifications.

Diffusion of Inventions and Discoveries to Other Lands

Diffusion encompasses the process by which an invention or discovery spreads to new regions and territories. Whether it’s social or material innovations, their dissemination into fresh areas can profoundly alter the lives of the people living there as well as their social systems.

For instance, the principles of citizenship and gender equality have disseminated across the globe, instigating transformative changes in social systems on a global scale. Similarly, the introduction and widespread adoption of steel axes among Australian Aborigine societies granted women access to these tools, whereas in the past, they were predominantly in the possession of men, unless women received specific permission to use them.

Ogburn’s contention was that technology typically serves as the primary catalyst for change and invention, with discovery and diffusion being integral components of technological advancement. Culture, however, tends to lag slightly behind. Culture, encompassing customs, behavioral patterns, norms, and artistic expression, must adapt to the technological progress of the world. This lag between technological advancement and cultural adaptation is what Ogburn termed ‘cultural lag.’

Ogburn’s theory is often criticized for being too one-directional and holding technology alone responsible for social change. Critics of Ogburn like to point out that people are not just passive players in the world being affected by technological developments and unable to take control over it. People take control over technology and use it consciously, rather than just being influenced by it.

In addition, social change can also affect technology, not just the other way around.

For example, the rise of Nazism in Europe stimulated America and the Soviet Union to develop the atomic bomb.

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