UPSC Study Material

Geomorphology

• The origin of the Earth
• Early Theories
• Modern Theories – BBT
• Star Formation
• Formation of Planets
• Solar System
• The Evolution of the Earth
• Layered Structure (5 layers)
• Evolution of Lithosphere
• Evolution of Atmosphere
• Evolution of Hydrosphere
• Geological History of the Earth
• Earth
• Latitude and Longitude including important Parallels and Meridians
• Motions of the Earth – Rotation, Revolution and their effects
• Inclination of the Earth’s Axis and its effects
• Local and Standard Time and the International Date Line, Calendar
• Eclipses – Solar, Lunar
• Origin of Life
• Geological Time Scale
• Interior of the Earth
• Sources of Information
• Direct
• Indirect – Earth Quake Waves Volcanoes
• Crust
• Mantle
• Core
• Geology
• Minerals
• Major Elements of the Earth’s Crust
• Minerals – Feldspar, Quartz, Pyroxene Amphibole, Mica, Olivine
• Physical Characteristics- Crystal Form, Cleavage Fracture, Lusture, Color, Streak
• Transparency, Structure, Hardness, Specific Gravity
• Metallic minerals – precious Ferrous, Non Ferrous
• Non-metallic Minerals – Sulphur, Phosphates, Cement
• Rocks (Aggregate of Minerals)
• Petrology
• Rocks & landforms
• Rocks & Soils
• 3 Family of Rocks
  • Igneous
  • Sedimentary
  • Metamorphic
• Rock Cycle

• Earthquakes
• Waves: P, S, Body, Surface
• Shadow Zone
• Types of Earthquakes
• Effects
• Frequency
• Locating an Epicenter
• Volcano
• Types
• Shield
• Composite
• Caldera
• Flood Basalt
• Mid Ocean Ridge
• Landforms (intrusive)
• Batholiths
• Laccoliths
• Lapoliths
• Phacoliths
• Sills
• Dykes
• Geomorphic Processes
• Earth’s Surface
• Exogenic Forces
• Endogenic Forces
• Gradation, Degradation & Aggradations
• Geomorphic Process
• Endogenic Process
• Diastrophism
  • Orogenic
  • Epierogenic
  • Earthquakes
  • Plate movements
• Volcanism
• Exogenic Forces
• Denudation Processes
• Weathering
• Mass movements
• Erosion Transportation & Deposition
• Distribution of Continents & Oceans
• Theories
• Continental Drift Theory
• Alfred Wegner 1912
• Pangea, Panthalasa
• Laurasia, Gondwanaland
• Evidence in support of Continental Drift Theory
• Jigsaw Fit
• Rocks of Same age across oceans
• Tillite
• Placer Deposits
• Distribution of Fossils
• Forces of Drifting
• Pole Fleeing Force
• Tidal Force
• Post Drift Studies
• Convectional Current Theory
• Mapping of the Ocean Floor
• Continents – plate Tectonics
• Lithospheric Plates
• Major Plate
• Minor Plates
• Plate Boundaries
• Divergent
• Convergent
• Transform
• Rates of Plate Movements
• Force of plate movements
• Indian Plate
• Movement from 71mnyrs ago till Today
• Landforms and their Evolution
• Causes
• Geomorphic Processes
• Agents
• Geomorphic Agents
• Erosional or Destructional
• Depositional or Constructional
• Agents and their Impacts
• Wind, Running Water, Ground Water, Glaciers, Waves & Currents
• Winds
• One of the Two dominant agents in Hot deserts
• Cause – Deflation Abrasion Impact
• Erosional landforms
• Pediments and Pedi plains
• Playas
• Deflation Hollows and Caves
• Mushroom, Table & Pedestal Rocks
• Depositional Landforms
• Barchans
• Self
• Parabolic
• Transverse
• Longitudinal
• Running Water
• Humid Regions
• 2 Components
• Overland Flow – Sheet
• Linear Flow – Streams
• Stages
• Youth Mature Old
• Erosional Landforms
• Valleys
• Rills
• Gullies
• Valleys – V Shape, Gorge (Hard Rocks), Canyon (Sedimentary)
• Potholes & Plunge pools
• Incised or entrenched meanders
• River Terraces – paired & unpaired
• Depositional Landforms
• Alluvial Fans
• Delta
• Flood Plains, Natural Levees, Point Bars
• Meanders, Slip off Bank, Undercut bank
• Oxbow lake
• Braided Channels
• Groundwater (Karsts Topography)
• Permeable Rocks
• Percolation
• Bedding Plains
• Limestone and Dolomite Regions
• Balkans, Adjacent to Adriatic regions
• Erosional Landforms
• Pools – Swallow Hole, Valley Sinks (Uvalas), Sinkholes, Collapse sinks (Dolines), Lapis, Ridges, Limestone Pavements
• Caves – Altering bed of Rocks (Shale sandstone quartzite), Caves and Tunnels
• Depositional Landforms
• Stalactites
• Stalagmites
• Pillar Columns
• Glaciers
• Erosional Landforms
• Cirque of Tarn Lakes
• Hors and Serrated Regions – Arete
• Glacial Valleys/ Troughs – Fiords
• Depositional Landforms
• Glacial Tills
• Moraines
• Eskers
• Outwash Planes
• Drumlins
• Waves and Currents
• High Rocky Coasts & Low Sedimentary Coasts
• Erosional Landforms
• Cliffs
• Terraces
• Caves
• Stacks
• Depositional Landforms
• Beaches and Dunes
• Bars Barriers Spits
• Weathering
• Weather over Earth Materials
• Factors
• Geological
• Climatic
• Topographic
• Vegetative
• Major Processes
• Chemical
• Physical or Mechanical
• Biological
• Chemical – Forces Chemical Action
• Solution
• Carbonation
• Hydration
• Oxidation & Reduction
• Physical Forces Gravitational, Expansion, Water Pressure
• Unloading & Expansion
• Temperature changes and Expansion
• Freezing, Thawing, & Frost Wedging
• Salt Wedging
• Biological Weathering
• Burrowing
• Wedging
• Plant Roots
• Effects of Weathering
• Exfoliation (Flaking) – Exfoliation Domes, Tors
• Significance of Weathering
• Soil Formation
• Biomes and Biodiversity
• Leaching/ Enrichment
• Mass Movements
• Activating causes
• Forms of movement – Heave Flow Slide
• 3 major Groups – Slow Movement, Rapid Movements, landSlides
• Landforms across the world:
• Rivers and lakes
• Mountain and Peaks
• Plateaus

1. Climatology

• Composition
• Gases
• Water Vapour
• Dust Particles
• Structure
• Exosphere
• Thermosphere
• Mesosphere
• Stratosphere
• Troposphere
• Altitude vs Temperature
• Solar Radiation Heat Balance Temperature
• Insolation
• Aphelion and Perihelion
• Variability of Insolation at the surface of the Earth
• Day Season Year
• Rotation on Axis, Angle of Inclination of sun rays, Length of the day
• Transparency of Atmosphere, configuration of land in terms of its aspect
• Heat Balance
• Heating and cooling of atmosphere
• Conduction
• Convection
• Advection
• Terrestrial Radiation
• Heat Budget of the Planet Earth
• Marco Budget
• Albedo
• Shortwave Radiation
• Longwave Earth Radiation
• Variation in the net Heat Budget at the Earth’s Surface
• Temperature
• Factors controlling T distribution
• Distribution of T Month of January – July
• Range of T Month of January – July
• Inversion of Temperature
• Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Vertical variation of pressure
• Horizontal distribution of pressure
• World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure
• Factors affecting the velocity and direction of the WIND
• Pressure Gradient Force
• Frictional Force
• Coriolis Force
• Pressure and Wind (Cyclonic & Anticyclone Circulation)
• General Circulation of the Atmosphere – Pattern of Planetary Winds
• Latitudinal Variation of Atmospheric Heating
• Emergence of Pressure Belts
• Migration of Belts Following apparent Path of Sun
• Distribution of continents & Oceans
• Rotation of the Earth
• Circulation
• Simplified Global Circulation – Hadley Cell, Ferrell Cell
• Seasonal Wind
• Local Wind
• Land and Sea Breezes
• Mountain and Valley winds
• AIR MASS – fronts
• Extra Tropical Cyclone
• Thunderstorms
• Tornadoes
• Water in the Atmosphere
• Water Vapour
• Precipitation
• Humidity – Absolute and Relative
• Saturation – Dew Point
• Evaporation and Condensation
• Dew
• Frost
• Fog & Mist
• Clouds
• Types – Cirrus Cumulus Stratus Nimbus
• High – Cirrus Cirrostratus Cirrocumulus
• Middle – Altostratus Altocumulus
• Low – Stratocumulus Nimbostratus
• Vertical Development – Cumulus and Cumulonimbus
• Precipitation
• Rainfall
• Snowfall
• Sleet
• Hail
• Hailstones
• Types of Rainfall
• Convectional
• Orographic
• Cyclonic
• World Distribution of Rainfall
• World Climate
• The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate
• The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates
• The Savanna or Sudan Climate
• The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Climates
• The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate
• The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate
• The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate
• The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British Type) Climate
• The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate
• The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Lauren-tian) Climate
• The Arctic or Polar Climate

1. Oceanography

• Water on the Surface of the Earth
• Hydrological Cycle
• Processes
• Oceans
• Relief of the Ocean floor
• 4 divisions of the ocean floor
• Continental Shelf
• Continental Slope
• Deep sea plain
• Oceanic deep and Trenches
• Minor relief features
• Mid-oceanic ridges
• Seamount
• Submarine canyons
• Guy outs
• Atoll
• Temperature of the Ocean Water
• Vertical
• Spatial
• Factors affecting Temperature distribution
• Latitude
• Unequal distribution of land & Water
• Prevailing wind
• Ocean Currents
• Horizontal & Vertical Distribution
• Thermocline
• 3 layers
• Salinity of the Ocean Water
• Factors affecting salinity
• Evaporation and precipitation
• Freshwater flow from rivers
• Wing
• Ocean currents
• Horizontals distribution of salinity
• Vertical Distribution of salinity
• Density of Ocean Waters
• Movements of ocean Water
• Factors influencing Movement
• Temperature
• Salinity
• Density
• Sun MOON WINDS
• Motion – Horizontal & Vertical Currents
• Characteristic of WAVE
• Crest and Trough
• Height
• Amplitude
• Period
• Length
• Speed
• Frequency
• Tides
• Relation between Gravitational Forces and Tides
• Tidal currents
• Types of Tides
• Based on Frequency – Semi Diurnal, Diurnal, mixed
• Based on SME position – spring and Neap Tides
• Importance of Tides
• Ocean Currents
• Influenced by 2 forces
• Primary Force that initiates the movement
• Heating of solar energy
• Wind
• Gravity
• Coriolis force
• Secondary force that influence the currents to flow
• Characteristic – Drift – 5 knots
• Types of ocean currents
• Surface currents & Deep water currents based on Depth
• Cold and Warm Currents based on Temperature
• Major Ocean currents of the World
• Effects of Ocean Currents

1. Water Resource

• Underground water resource
• Surface water resources
• Inland water resources: Utilization of inland water resources: Main features of ocean
• Utilization of oceans by man
• Water consumption patterns
• Water pollution
• Conservation of water resources
• Techniques of water conservation

1. Biogeography

• Soil
• Soil Characteristics
• Factors Responsible for Soil Formation
• Stages of Soil Formation
• Soil Forming Processes
• Soil Profiles and Horizons
• Soil Classification
• Soil Erosion and conservation
• Vegetation resources
• Types of natural vegetation
• Forests
• Significance of forests
• Economic significance, Ecological significance
• Cultural significance
• Factors of forest development
• Extent of forest cover
• Classification of forests
• Grasslands
• Desert vegetation
• Tundra vegetation
• Economic utilization of forests
• Deforestation
• Deforestation in tropical forests
• Deforestation in temperate forests
• Rate and extent of deforestation
• Causes and factors of deforestation: Immediate causes of deforestation
• Indirect deforestation
• Underlying causes of deforestation
• Conservation of forests
• Forest conservation strategies
• Reforestation
• Monoculture plantation
• Afforestation
• Types of forestry
• Social forestry
• Agroforestry